SPACING WITH PUNCTUATION

Rule 1. With a typewriter, you sometimes use one space or two spaces following punctuation. With a computer, use only one space following periods, commas, semicolons, colons, exclamation points, question marks, and quotation marks. With a computer, the space needed after these punctuation marks is proportioned automatically.
Rule 2. Use no spaces on either side of a hyphen. [For more rules about hyphens, click on Hyphens.]
Example We borrowed twenty-three sheets of paper.
NOTE: For spacing with ellipsis marks, click on Ellipsis Marks. For spacing with en and em dashes, click on Dashes.

PERIODS

Rule 1. Use a period at the end of a complete sentence that is a statement.
Example I know that you would never break my trust intentionally.
Rule 2. If the last word in the sentence ends in a period, do not follow it with another period.
Examples I know that M.D. She is my sister-in-law.
Please shop, cook, etc. I will do the laundry.
Rule 3. Use the period after an indirect question.
Example He asked where his suitcase was.

ELLIPSIS MARKS

NOTE: To create ellipsis marks with a PC, hit space, period, space, period, space, period, space. On a Mac, hit Option Semicolon.
Rule 1. If words are omitted at the end of a quoted sentence, use ellipsis marks followed by the necessary ending punctuation mark.
Examples The regulation states, "All agencies must document overtime . . . ."
The original sentence read, The regulation states, "All agencies must document overtime or risk losing federal funds."
She said, "Can you tell me what happened to . . . ?"
Rule 2. Sometimes sentences are meant to trail off. Use ellipsis marks without any ending punctuation in this situation.
Example "I thought that you might . . ."
Rule 3. If words are omitted within a quoted sentence, use ellipsis marks where you have left out the word(s).
Example "According to our records, Callan received . . . awards for best actress."
Original According to our records, Callan received two Emmys and two Oscar awards for best actress."
Rule 4. If sentences are omitted between other sentences within a quotation, use ellipsis marks after the ending punctuation mark of the preceding sentence.
Example The regulation states, "Agencies may risk losing federal funds. . . . All agencies will be audited annually."
NOTE: The first period has no space before it because it is the ending punctuation mark for the first sentence. After the ellipsis marks, one space follows before the next sentence.
Rule 5. If your quoted material begins with the middle of a sentence, use the ellipsis marks at the beginning of the quotation.
Example Abraham Lincoln, in his Gettysburg address, said, ". . . our fathers brought forth . . . a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that 'all men are created equal.'"
NOTE: The second set of ellipsis marks in the above example is used where words within the quoted sentence have been omitted.
The original reads, "Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth, upon this continent, a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that 'all men are created equal.' "
Rule 6. When you omit one or more paragraphs within a long quotation, use ellipsis marks after the last punctuation mark that ends the preceding paragraph.

COMMAS

Rule 1. To avoid confusion, use commas to separate words and word groups with a series of three or more.
Example My $10,000,000 estate is to be split among my husband, daughter, son, and nephew.
NOTE: Omitting the comma after son would indicate that the son and nephew would have to split one-third of the estate.
Rule 2. Use a comma to separate two adjectives when the word and can be inserted between them.
Examples He is a strong, healthy man.
We stayed at an expensive summer resort.
You would not say expensive and summer resort, so no comma.
Rule 3. Use a comma when an ly adjective is used with other adjectives.
NOTE: To test if an ly word is an adjective, see if it can be used alone with the noun. If it can, use the comma.
Examples Felix was a lonely, young boy.
I get headaches in brightly lit rooms.
Brightly is not an adjective because it cannot be used alone with rooms; therefore, no comma is used between brightly and lit.
Rule 4. Use commas before or surrounding the name or title of a person directly addressed.
Examples Will you, Aisha, do that assignment for me?
Yes, Doctor, I will.
NOTE: Capitalize a title when directly addressing someone.
Rule 5a. Use a comma to separate the day of the month from the year and after the year.
Example Kathleen met her husband on December 5, 2003, in Mill Valley, California.
Rule 5b. If any part of the date is omitted, leave out the comma.
Example They met in December 2003 in Mill Valley.
Rule 6. Use a comma to separate the city from the state and after the state. Some businesses no longer use the comma after the state.
Example I lived in San Francisco, California, for 20 years.
OR I lived in San Francisco, California for 20 years.
Rule 7. Use commas to surround degrees or titles used with names.
Example Al Mooney, M.D., knew Sam Sunny, Jr.
NOTE: Sometimes people having names with Jr. attached do not use a comma before the Jr. If they do not use the comma, then you should not.
Rule 8. Use commas to set off expressions that interrupt the flow of the sentence.
Example I am, as you have probably noticed, very nervous about this.
Rule 9. When starting a sentence with a weak clause, use a comma after it. Conversely, do not use a comma when the sentence starts with a strong clause followed by a weak clause.
Examples If you are not sure about this, let me know now.
Let me know now if you are not sure about this.
Rule 10. Use a comma after phrases of more than three words that begin a sentence.
Examples To apply for this job, you must have previous experience.
On February 14 many couples give each other candy or flowers.
Rule 11. If something or someone is sufficiently identified, the description following it is considered nonessential and should be surrounded by commas.
Examples Freddy, who has a limp, was in an auto accident.
Freddy is named so the description is not essential.

The boy who has a limp was in an auto accident.
We do not know which boy is being referred to without further description;
therefore, no commas are used.
Rule 12. Use a comma to separate two strong clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction-and, or, but, for, nor. You can omit the comma if the clauses are both short.
Examples I have painted the entire house, but he is still working on sanding the doors.
I paint and he writes.
Rule 13. Use the comma to separate two sentences if it will help avoid confusion.
Example I chose the colors red and green, and blue was his first choice.
Rule 14. A comma splice is an error caused by joining two strong clauses with only a comma instead of separating the clauses with a conjunction, a semicolon, or a period. A comma splice creates what is known as a run-on sentence.
Incorrect Time flies when we are having fun, we are always having fun.
(Comma splice)
Correct Time flies when we are having fun and we are always having fun.
Time flies when we are having fun; we are always having fun.
Time flies when we are having fun. We are always having fun.
Rule 15. If the subject does not appear in front of the second verb, do not use a comma.
Example He thought quickly when asked that difficult question but still did not answer correctly.
Rule 16. Use commas to introduce or interrupt direct quotations shorter than three lines.
Examples He actually said, "I do not care."
"Why," I asked, "do you always forget to do it?"
Rule 17. Use a comma to separate a statement from a question.
Example I can go, can't I?
Rule 18. Use a comma to separate contrasting parts of a sentence.
Example That is my money, not yours.
Rule 19. Use a comma when beginning sentences with introductory words such as well, now, or yes.
Examples Yes, I do need that report.
Well, I never thought I'd live to see the day . . .
Rule 20. Use commas surrounding words such as therefore and however when they are used as interruptors.
Examples I would, therefore, like a response.
I would be happy, however, to volunteer for the Red Cross.
Rule 21. It is preferable to use a comma, not a semicolon, before introductory words such as namely, that is, i.e., for example, e.g., or for instance when they are followed by a series of items. The comma after the introductory word is optional.
Examples You may be required to bring many items, e.g., sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing.
As we discussed, you will bring two items, i.e. a sleeping bag and a tent.

SEMICOLONS

Rule 1. Use a semicolon in place of a period to separate two sentences where the conjunction has been left out.
Examples Call me tomorrow; I will give you my answer then.
I have paid my dues; therefore, I expect all the privileges listed in the contract.
Rule 2. It is preferable to use a semicolon before introductory words such as namely, that is, i.e., for example, e.g., or for instance when they introduce a complete sentence. It is also preferable to use a comma after the introductory word.
Examples You may be required to bring many items; e.g., sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing will make the trip better.

As we discussed, you will bring two items; i.e., a sleeping bag and a tent are not optional.

NOTE: i.e. means that is
e.g. means for example
Rule 3. Use the semicolon to separate units of a series when one or more of the units contain commas.
Example This conference has people that have come from Boise, Idaho; Los Angeles, California; and Nashville, Tennessee.
Rule 4. Use the semicolon between two sentences that are joined by a conjunction but already have one or more commas within the first sentence.
Examples When I finish here, I will be glad to help you; and that is a promise I will keep.
If she can, she will attempt that feat; and if her husband is able, he will be there to see her.

COLONS

Rule 1. Use the colon after a complete sentence to introduce a list of items when introductory words such as namely, for example, or that is do not appear.
Examples You may be required to bring many items: sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing.
I want the following items: butter, sugar, and flour.
I want an assistant who can do the following: 1) input data, 2) write reports, and 3) complete tax forms.
Rule 2. A colon should not precede a list unless it follows a complete sentence; however, the colon is a style choice that some publications allow.
Examples
I want an assistant who can 1) input data, 2) write reports, and 3) complete tax forms.

If a waitress wants to make a good impression on her customers and boss, she should
a) dress appropriately,
b) calculate the bill carefully, and
c) be courteous to customers.

There are three ways a waitress can make a good impression on her boss and her customers:
a) Dress appropriately.
b) Calculate the bill carefully.
c) Be courteous to customers.
Rule 3. Capitalization and punctuation are optional when using single words or phrases in bulleted form. If each bullet or numbered point is a complete sentence, capitalize the first word and end each sentence with proper ending punctuation. The rule of thumb is to be consistent.
Examples I want an assistant who can do the following:
a) input data,
b) write reports, and
c) complete tax forms.

The following are requested:
a) Wool sweaters for possible cold weather.
b) Wet suits for snorkeling.
c) Introductions to the local dignitaries.

These are some of the pool rules:
1. You must not run.
2. If you see unsafe behavior, report it to the lifeguard.
3. Have fun!
Rule 4. Use a colon instead of a semicolon between two strong clauses (sentences) when the second clause explains or illustrates the first clause and no coordinating conjunction is being used to connect the clauses. Capitalization of the sentence following the colon is optional.
Examples I enjoy reading: novels by Kurt Vonnegut are among my favorites.
Garlic is used in Italian cooking: it greatly enhances the flavor of pasta dishes.
Rule 5. Use the colon to introduce a direct quotation that is more than three typewritten lines in length. In this situation, leave a blank line above and below the quoted material. Single space the long quotation. Some style manuals say to indent one-half inch on both the left and right margins; others say to indent only on the left margin. Quotation marks are not used.
Rule 6. Use the colon to follow the salutation of a business letter even when addressing someone by his/her first name. Never use a semicolon after a salutation. A comma is used after the salutation for personal correspondence.

QUESTION MARKS

Rule 1. Use a question mark only after a direct question.
Examples Will you go with me?
I asked if he would go with me.
Rule 2. Use a question mark when a sentence is half statement and half question.
Example You do care, don't you?

EXCLAMATION POINTS

Rule 1. Use exclamation points to show emphasis or surprise. Do not use the exclamation point in formal business letters.
Example I'm truly shocked by your behavior!

QUOTATION MARKS

Rule 1. Periods and commas always go inside quotation marks, even inside single quotes.
Examples The sign changed from "Walk," to "Don't Walk," to "Walk" again within 30 seconds.
She said, "Hurry up."
She said, "He said, 'Hurry up.'"
Rule 2. The placement of question marks with quotes follows logic. If a question is in quotation marks, the question mark should be placed inside the quotation marks.
Examples She asked, "Will you still be my friend?"
Do you agree with the saying, "All's fair in love and war"?
Here the question is outside the quote.
NOTE: Only one ending punctuation mark is used with quotation marks. Also, the stronger punctuation mark wins. Therefore, no period after war is used.
Rule 3. When you have a question outside quoted material AND inside quoted material, use only one question mark and place it inside the quotation mark.
Example Did she say, "May I go?"
Rule 4. Use single quotation marks for quotes within quotes. Note that the period goes inside all quote marks.
Example He said, "Danea said, 'Do not treat me that way.'"
Rule 5. Use quotation marks to set off a direct quotation only.
Examples "When will you be here?" he asked.
He asked when you will be there.
Rule 6. Do not use quotation marks with quoted material that is more than three lines in length. Introduce the quotation with a colon and leave a blank line above and below the quoted material. Single space the quoted material. Some style manuals say to indent one-half inch on both the left and right margins; others say to indent only on the left margin. Quotation marks are not used.
Rule 7. When you are quoting something that has a spelling or grammar mistake or presents material in a confusing way, insert the term sic in italics and enclose it in brackets. Sic means, "This is the way the original material was."
Examples She wrote, "I would rather die then [sic] be seen wearing the same outfit as my sister has on."
Should be than, not then.

PARENTHESES

Rule 1. Use parentheses to enclose words or figures that clarify or are used as an aside.
Examples I expect five hundred dollars ($500).

He finally answered (after taking five minutes to think) that he did not understand the question.
Commas could have been used in the above example. Parentheses show less emphasis or importance. Em dashes, which could also have been used instead of parentheses, show emphasis.
Rule 2. You may use half parentheses to enclose numbers of listed items in a sentence.
Example We need an emergency room physician who can 1) think quickly, 2) treat patients respectfully, and 3) handle complaints from the public.
Rule 3. Periods go inside parentheses only if an entire sentence is inside the parentheses.
Examples Please read the analysis (I enclosed it as Attachment A.).
OR
Please read the analysis. (I enclosed it as Attachment A.)
OR
Please read the analysis (Attachment A).

APOSTROPHES

Rule 1. Use the apostrophe with contractions. The apostrophe is always placed at the spot where the letter(s) has been removed.
Examples don't, isn't
You're right.
She's a great teacher.
Rule 2. Use the apostrophe to show possession. Place the apostrophe before the s to show singular possession.
Examples one boy's hat
one woman's hat
one actress's hat
one child's hat
Ms. Chang's house
Mr. Jones's golf clubs
Texas's weather
Ms. Straus' s daughter
Jose Sanchez's artwork
Dr. Hastings's appointment (name is Hastings)
Mrs. Lees's books (name is Lees)
Rule 3. To show plural possession, make the noun plural first. Then immediately use the apostrophe.
Examples two boys' hats
two women's hats
two actresses' hats
two children's hats
the Changs' house
the Joneses' golf clubs
the Strauses' daughter
the Sanchezes' artwork
the Hastingses' appointment
the Leeses' books
Rule 4. With a singular compound noun, show possession with 's at the end of the word.
Example my mother-in-law's hat
Rule 5. If the compound noun is plural, form the plural first and then use the apostrophe.
Example my two brothers-in-law's hats
Rule 6. Use the apostrophe and s after the second name only if two people possess the same item.
Examples Cesar and Maribel's home is constructed of redwood.
Cesar's and Maribel's job contracts will be renewed next year.
There is separate ownership.


Cesar and Maribel's job contracts will be renewed next year.
There is joint ownership of more than one contract.

Rule 7. Never use an apostrophe with possessive pronouns: his, hers, its, theirs, ours, yours, whose. They already show possession so they do not require an apostrophe. The only time an apostrophe is used for it's is when it is a contraction for it is.
Examples This book is hers, not yours.
It hurt its paw.
It's a nice day.
It's your right to refuse the invitation.
Rule 8. The plurals for capital letters and numbers used as nouns are not formed with apostrophes.
Examples She consulted with three M.D.s.
BUT
She went to three M.D.s' offices.
The apostrophe is needed here to show plural possessive.

She learned her ABCs.
the 1990s not the 1990's
the '90s or the mid-'70s not the '90's or the mid-'70's
She learned her times tables for 6s and 7s.
Rule 9. Use possessive case in front of a gerund (ing word).
Examples Alex's skating was a joy to behold.
This does not stop Joan's inspecting of our facilities next Thursday.
Rule 10. If the gerund has a pronoun in front of it, use the possessive form of that pronoun.
Examples I appreciate your inviting me to dinner.
I appreciated his working with me to resolve the conflict.

HYPHENS

Authorities disagree on hyphenation more than on any other punctuation mark. Also, there are just too many rules for one human being to learn. Therefore, the following rules should be considered as guidelines only.
Hyphens Between Words
Rule 1. To check if a compound noun is two words, one word, or hyphenated, you may need to look it up in the dictionary. If you can't find the word in the dictionary, treat the noun as separate words.
Examples eyewitness, eye shadow, eye-opener
NOTE: All these words had to be looked up in the dictionary to know what to do with them!
Rule 2. Phrases that have both verb, noun, and adjective forms should appear as separate words when used as verbs and as one word when used as nouns or adjectives.
Examples The engine will eventually break down. (verb)
We suffered a breakdown in communications. (noun)
Please clean up your room. (verb)
That Superfund site will require specialized cleanup procedures. (adjective)
Rule 3. Compound verbs are either hyphenated or appear as one word. If you do not find the verb in the dictionary, hyphenate it.
Examples To air-condition the house will be costly.
We were notified that management will downsize the organization next year.
Rule 4. Generally, hyphenate between two or more adjectives when they come before a noun and act as a single idea.
Examples friendly-looking man
compound adjective in front of a noun

friendly little girl
not a compound adjective

brightly lit room
Brightly is an adverb describing lit, not an adjective.
Rule 5. When adverbs other than ly adverbs are used as compound words in front of a noun, hyphenate. When the combination of words is used after the noun, do not hyphenate.
Examples The well-known actress accepted her award.
Well is an adverb followed by another descriptive word. They combine to form one idea in front of the noun.

The actress who accepted her award was well known.
Well known follows the noun it describes, so no hyphen is used.

A long-anticipated decision was finally made.

He had his much-needed haircut yesterday.

His haircut was much needed.
Rule 6. Remember to use a comma, not a hyphen, between two adjectives when you could have used and between them.
Example I have important, classified documents.
Jennifer received a lovely, fragrant bouquet on Valentine's Day.
Rule 7. Hyphenate all compound numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine.
Examples The teacher had thirty-two children in her classroom.
Only twenty of the children were bilingual.
Hyphens with Prefixes
Rule 1. The current trend is to do away with unnecessary hyphens. Therefore, attach most prefixes and suffixes onto root words without a hyphen.
Example noncompliance, copayment, semiconscious, fortyish
Exception bell-like
Avoid three of any one letter in a row.
Exception non-civil service position Use the hyphen with compound words.
Rule 2. Hyphenate prefixes when they come before proper nouns.
Example un-American
Rule 3. Hyphenate prefixes ending in a or i only when the root word begins with an a or i.
Examples ultra-ambitious
semi-invalid
Rule 4. When a prefix ends in one vowel and a root word begins with a different vowel, generally attach them without a hyphen.
Examples antiaircraft, proactive
Rule 5. Double e's and double o's are usually made into one word.
Examples preemployment, coordinate
Exceptions de-emphasize, co-owner
Rule 6. Hyphenate all words beginning with self except for selfish and selfless.
Examples self-assured, self-respect, self-addressed
Rule 7. Use a hyphen with the prefix ex.
Examples His ex-wife sued for nonsupport.
Rule 8. Use the hyphen with the prefix re only when:

the re means again
AND
omitting the hyphen would cause confusion with another word.
Examples Will she recover from her illness?
Re does not mean again.

I have re-covered the sofa twice.
Re does mean again
AND
omitting the hyphen would have caused confusion with another word.

The stamps have been reissued.
Re means again but would not cause confusion with another word.

I must re-press the shirt.
Re means again
AND
omitting the hyphen would have caused confusion with another word.

DASHES

En Dash
An en dash, which is a little longer than a hyphen, is used for periods of time when you might otherwise use to. With an en dash, spacing is dependent on your computer. On a PC, an en dash is made by using ALT + 0150 (hold down the ALT key and type 0150 on the numeric keypad), with a space before and after it. If you are using a Mac, press the option key and the hyphen key to form an en dash.
Examples The years 2001 – 2003
January – June
Em Dash
Use an em dash sparingly in formal writing. Don't use it just because you are uncertain about correct punctuation. In informal writing, em dashes may replace commas, semicolons, colons, and parentheses to indicate added emphasis, an interruption, or an abrupt change of thought.

On a PC, an em dash is made by using ALT + 0151 (hold down the ALT key and type 0151 on the numeric keypad), with no spaces before or after. It looks like this: — On a Mac, an em dash is made by striking Option, Shift, Hyphen.

Example You are the friend—the only friend—who offered to help me.

Never have I met such a lovely person—before you.

I pay the bills—she has all the fun.
A semicolon would be used here in formal writing.

I need three items at the store—dog food, vegetarian chili, and cheddar cheese.
Remember, a colon would be used here in formal writing.

My agreement with Fiona is clear—she teaches me French and I teach her German.
Again, a colon would work here in formal writing.

Please call my agent—Jessica Cohen—about hiring me.
Parentheses or commas would work just fine here instead of the dashes.

I wish you would—oh, never mind.
This shows an abrupt change in thought and warrants a dash.

CAPITALIZATION

Rule 1. Capitalize the first word of a quoted sentence.
Examples He said, "Treat her as you would your own daughter."

"Look out!" she screamed. "You almost ran into my child."
Rule 2. Capitalize a proper noun.
Example Golden Gate Bridge
Rule 3. Capitalize a person's title when it precedes the name. Do not capitalize when the title is acting as a description following the name.
Examples Chairperson Petrov

Ms. Petrov, the chairperson of the company, will address us at noon.
Rule 4. Capitalize when the person's title follows the name on the address or signature line.
Examples Sincerely,
Ms. Haines, Chairperson
Rule 5. Capitalize the titles of high-ranking government officials when used with or before their names. Do not capitalize the civil title if it is used instead of the name.
Examples The president will address Congress.

All senators are expected to attend.

The governors and lieutenant governors called for a special task force.

Governor Fortinbrass, Lieutenant Governor Poppins, Attorney General Dalloway, and Senators James and Twain will attend.
Rule 6. Capitalize any title when used as a direct address.
Example Will you take my temperature, Doctor?
Rule 7. Capitalize points of the compass only when they refer to specific regions.
Examples We have had three relatives visit from the South.

Go south three blocks and then turn left.

We live in the southeast section of town.
Southeast is just an adjective here describing section, so it should not be capitalized.
Rule 8. Capitalize titles of publications except for little words such as a, an, the, but, as, if, and, or, nor, when used internally. If these little words begin the title, capitalize them. Capitalize short verb forms such as Is, Are, and Be.
Examples The Day of the Jackal

What Color Is Your Parachute?

A Tale of Two Cities
Rule 9. Capitalize federal or state when used as part of an official agency name or in government documents where these terms represent an official name. If they are being used as general terms, you can use lower case letters.
Examples The state has evidence to the contrary.

That is a federal offense.

The State Board of Equalization collects sales taxes.

We will visit three states during our summer vacation.

The Federal Bureau of Investigation has been subject to much scrutiny and criticism lately.

Her business must comply with all county, state, and federal laws.
Rule 10. You may capitalize words such as department, bureau, and office if you have prepared your text in the following way:
Example The Bureau of Land Management (Bureau) has some jurisdiction over Indian lands. The Bureau is finding its administrative role to be challenging.
Rule 11. Do not capitalize names of seasons.
Example I love autumn colors and spring flowers.
Rule 12. Capitalize the first word of a salutation and the first word of a complimentary close.
Examples Dear Ms. Mohamed:

My dear Mr. Sanchez:

Very truly yours,
Rule 13. Capitalize words derived from proper nouns.
Example I must take English and math.
English is capitalized because it comes from the proper noun England but math does not come from mathland.
Rule 14. Capitalize the names of specific course titles.
Example I must take history and Algebra 2.